This reporting activity is sometimes perceived as a drudgery by students. The reasons for this are easy to understand. Teachers often perform standard experiments, devote large blocks of time to apparatus setup and measurement procedures and provide little opportunity for creativity, reflection, discussion, data visualization and writing. Scientists, on the other hand, explore the unknown, and use reports as valuable means of expression for their ideas and viewpoint. They use the latest technologies to present their findings and devote much time to informing and debating ideas with others.
We as teachers are often handed a table of numbers to represent the conclusion of an experiment. These lists of numbers are a stack of bricks, a valid conclusion is a well-build house. The National Science Standards talk about not only hands-on but minds-on activities. This is not a dream - we can accomplish more by just rethinking our battle plan.
For the teacher, the page is an evaluation tool with each item as a criteria for grading the report. Points are indicated across the top of the grid for the teacher to check off the number awarded, depending upon the quality of the item produced in the report. The total number of points, summed at the bottom of the grid, produces a percentage grade for the report (100 points possible).
Note that some of the criteria items listed are fairly general and some are very specific. The specific items, for example 'units on all measurements' or ' clear labels' on tables, target specific skill weaknesses exhibited by many post secondary students (BONE, et al, 1984, p.38). It is important to reinforce these items for all students, even the most advanced.
TITLE PAGE.
Students compose a title for the report and set up a title page with the
title, their name, and class name, and the date. Remind students that the
title of a scientific report should give the reader a clear idea of the
problem investigated. Students tend to develop a title that is too broad or
simply unrelated to the study performed. To assist students, ask them to
create this title AFTER their work is done and to first make a list of key words
that relate to the experiment.
INTRODUCTION. In
the Introduction section students describe the problem to be investigated
and state their prediction of the results (hypothesis). Novice
students can state the problem as a question to be investigated.
Experienced students should be encouraged to provide a more
sophisticated explanation of the problem. Teachers may want to
ask students to define important terms used, reinforcing the
usefulness of precise definitions. Teachers may also ask
students to identify the variables involved in the experiment.
At first the variables list can be simply a chart of everything
that was the same and different before and after the experiment.
The idea of controls and experimental variables can be
introduced. Experienced students can produce a more sophisticated
description of variables. Students tend to skip this discussion.
To assist them, point them to their textbooks to look up some general
information about the issue at hand. You are looking for a clear
statement of a problem and what they will investigate. Encourage
students to write about what is already known about the
problem.
PROCEDURE. In the
Procedure section, students will list the equipment used, make drawings
of their equipment/set-up, and describe step-by-step the exact procedure
used to conduct the experiment.
Novice students may list the steps of the procedure and it is often easier for them to do this in the present tense. The objective is to practice sequence and completeness of the steps. Experienced students should write the procedure in the past tense, describing exactly what happened during their trials. Ultimately they need to be able to produce a clear enough description that another investigator following the written directions could repeat the same experiment. Students tend to abbreviate the procedure or write about it in very general terms. To assist them, write down 10 (15? 20?) numbers in a column and ask the students to create a list of the "10 most important steps" in the setup and measurement procedure FOR THEIR EXPERIMENT that everyone should know.
Students list each piece of equipment used, quantities of each. and include a drawing of the equipment as it was set up. Novice students may produce simple drawings of the pieces of equipment showing something of how they were used. Experienced students should produce clearly labeled illustrations of how the equipment was set-up or diagrams of the experimental design used.
In writing both the steps to the procedure and listing equipment, students should be asked to give precise quantities for all amounts or measurements described. For example, if toothpicks were used, they should give how many toothpicks; if a box was used, they should provide the size of the box; or if student volunteers participated, list how many volunteers, etc.
DATA. In the
section for
Data, the students provide a clear table showing their data. The data
tables are provided in each TSA and the students can fill in their
observations.
Experienced students could be asked to design their own data tables
and learn to consider what information is important to record.
In some of the TSAÕs students reorganize collected data and produce a graph. Students will need to use graphing skills such as the use of scale, correct labeling, and plotting points. Data reorganization may involve performing certain calculations such as averaging or determining a quantity, regrouping to find patterns, listing the X and Y parameters, etc. The type of graphs used depends upon the type of data collected. It may be appropriate for you to have students produce the graphs with computer software.
Students may need to be reminded to show units on all measurements, for example 12 meters, 6 boxes, 5 grams, etc.. Reinforce this habit from the very onset of data collection and calculation.
Students should also include examples of calculations performed and formulas used in the data section. They should display the results of their calculations clearly in a table or other manner.
RESULTS. In the
Results section
the student looks at the data and results tables and writes a
summarizing sentence or two to translate the data and results into
writing. Students often experience difficulty in listing observations.
These skills are vital in organizing information for writing clear,
concise laboratory reports. For novice students the teacher will want to
devote class time to this important and difficult step. Examples of
summarizing sentences might be: 'the water turned red in the first beaker
but not in the second one' or ' The large ball rolled 1.5 meters and the
small ball rolled 2 meters.'. A simple drawing illustrating the results
can be included. A labeled drawing can be an helpful prerequisite step
towards verbalizing the results in writing.
Students will need to develop skills for analyzing results and drawing conclusions as to what their results mean. Have students look for patterns in the data and think about explanations for these patterns. Remind students to keep in mind that some variations may be due to the influence of the variable under investigation, but they could also be the result of uncontrolled variables and errors in measurement.
All students should be encouraged to identify the sources of error impacting on the results of the experiment. This may be a simple recognition of inaccuracies in measurement, in improper use of measuring tools, variations in observers, or any influences the students think of which may change the results of the experiments. Students can think in terms of the list of variables they compiled and whether or not too many variables went uncontrolled. This will lead to the notion of more than one explanation for the results. In the Results section students also would include description and interpretation of a graphs used to illustrate the data. The student can use statements such as "The graph shows more seeds sprouted in the loamy soil than any of the other soils." Instead of making a simple 'more' or 'less' comparison, the more sophisticated student may be able to define the relationship between two parameters, such as "Graph #2 shows that temperature and evaporation rate are directly related ."
CONCLUSION. In the
conclusion students restate their prediction and then decide whether
their data does or does not support this prediction. A specific manner
in which to report the conclusion is developed; first restate the
prediction (hypothesis), then express the conclusion in terms of " my
results do/do not support my hypothesis" . Discourage students from
concluding "my hypothesis was right/wrong". Reinforce the idea that
their prediction is unsupported by the data collected. They can decide
for themselves if they want to abandon their hypothesis or maybe develop
another experiment to further test it. Students should then summarize
the conclusions that can be made from their results and include
supportive evidence for their conclusions.
Students are asked to provide a discussion of the generalizations of the results. Think of this in terms of how well do they think the results they found represent or agree with what would be found in the world in general, under similar circumstances. Often this is a statement comparing their specific results with those generally accepted by the scientific community, or with a universal scientific law. Do the results of their experiment agree with the findings of other scientists? All student are encouraged to 'ask a new question' as a final part of the conclusion. The need to consider a new question beyond the scope of the present experiment is an important part of any investigation, such as simply asking "What would happen if we tried it again but this time use blue dye instead of red." Extending the problem to new situations encourages the student to be more personally involved in the scientific process. Experienced students may be asked to evaluate his or her own experiment and suggest improvements.
Ellsworth, Mary S. (1987), Developing Laboratory Report Writing Skills
in the Science Classroom, unpublished paper.
Reynolds, Karen E. and Del Biorno, Bette J. (1986), Unlocking Science
Skills: Life Science and Biology , Globe Book Company, N.Y.
TSA Homepage